NEWTON'S CONCEPTS
By Prof. L. Kaliambos (Natural Philosopher in New Energy) May 3, 2016 After my discovery of the photon mass m = hν/c2 (1993) based on the gravitational properties of light (predicted by Newton and confirmed by Soldner in 1801), today it is well known that Planck in 1907 in order to interpret the gravitational properties of photon showed that his quanta of energy E = hν do have mass. Moreover according to Newton's laws when the constant velocity c of a photon is parallel to the force of gravity using Newton's law of gravity and his second law F = d(Mυ)/dt I discovered the photon mass by writing Fds = dw =hdν = (cdm/dt)ds = dmc2 That is, m = hν/c2 Newton was born in 1642. Like young Galileo, he loved to build and thinker with mechanical gadgets and who seemed to have a secret liking for mathematics. By 1666, at 24, he had quietly made spectacular discoveries in mathematics (binomial theorem, differential calculus), optics (theory of colors) and mechanics. Referring to this period, Newton once wrote: “And the same year I began to think of gravity extending to the orb of the Moon, and…from Kepler’s Rule law…I deduced that the forces which keep the Planets in their orbs must be reciprocally as the squares of their distances from the centers about which they revolve.” From his descriptions we may conclude that during those plague years Newton had developed a clear idea of his three laws of motion and of the formula for centripetal acceleration, although he did not announce until many years(1687) he published the Principia'' which established him almost at once as one of the greatest thinkers in history. In the original preface to Newton’s work we find a clear outline: “Since the ancients (as we are told by Pappus) esteemed the science of mechanics of greatest importance in the investigation of natural things, and the modern, rejecting substantial forms and occult qualities, have endeavored to subject the phenomena of nature to the laws of mathematics, I have in this treatise cultivated mathematics as far as it is related to philosophy would say ‘physical science’…for the whole burden of philosophy seems to me to consist in this-from the phenomena of motions to investigate induce the forces of nature, and then from these forces to demonstrate deduce the other phenomena, and to this end the general propositions of the first and second Books are directed.” The work begins with a set of definitions: mass, momentum, inertia, force, centripetal force. Then follows a section on absolute and relative space, time, and motion. For the definition of mass Newton recognized that the mass has two properties. The first property is connected with the phenomenon called ''inertia ''which led to his discovery of his first law of inertia. We may phrase the first law of motion as follows: ''every material body persists in its state of rest or of uniform unaccelerated motion in a straight line, if and only if it is not acted upon by a net ( i.e., unbalanced external) force'.'' The second property of mass is connected with the gravitational interaction which led to his discovery of the '''universal law of gravity' including a gravitational force Fg acting at a distance. Using his discovery of differential calculus he was ready to find the gravitational force on a body falling on the surface of the earth. He also found why all bodies fall on the surface of the earth with the same acceleration g = Δu/Δt = 9.8 m/s2 at sea level. For example after the Cavendish experiment (1798) who found the constant G of Newton’s formula we see that the gravitational force on a body with an inertial mass Mo interacting at the distance R (radius of the earth) with the mass M of the earth is given by Fg = Mog = GMoM/R2 Here we observe that all bodies on the surface of the earth have the same acceleration because the inertial mass is equal to the gravitational (interacting) mass. This situation led also to his discoveries of the second and the third law of motion. Historically, after a great influence of the Aristotelian ether for the origin of the centripetal force needed to keep the planets in orbits a dominant picture had given by the great philosopher Descartes (1596-1650) who proposed that all space was filled with a subtle invisible fluid of contiguous material corpuscles; the planets of the solar system were supposed to be caught in a huge vortex-like motion of this fluid about the sun. This idea was attractive to the minds of the day, and consequently was widely accepted. However Newton proved that this mechanism could not account for the quantitative observations on planetary motion as summarized, for example, in Kepler’s empirical laws. In '''''Principia Newton said clearly that he was not ready to discuss what gravity was, but there remained one feature which gravely bothered Newton, because Descartes in his Principles of Philosophy ''suggested that the bodies can exert forces on one another through a fallacious ether. At the end of Book III of the ''Principia, Newton put his remarks: “But hitherto I have not been able to discover the cause of those properties of gravity from phenomena [ observation and experimentation], and I FEIN NO HYPOTHESES….To us it is enough that gravity does really exist, and act according to the laws which we have explained, and abundantly serves to account for all the motions of the celestial bodies and of our sea.” In Newton’s own formulation of the second law, he states that the force acting on a body is equal to the change of its quantity of motion called momentum p = mu (product of mass and velocity) That is, F = dp/dt = d(mu)/dt. This is a simple generalization arising naturally from observations in collisions, in which a sudden blow produces a finite change of motion in a short period of time. Note that when the force disappears the uniform velocities after the collision are relative not to a randomly moving observer (invalid relativity) but to the point of collision. But for continuously acting forces, such as gravity it was far more convenient to define force differently. Euler in 1750 using Newton’s inertial mass Mo formalized the well known formula F = Moα which is used today for the definition of force no matter what the origin or cause of the force. Newton’s second law is so powerful precisely because it is so general like electricity, magnetism, or gravity. On this basis it will readily be appreciated that the standard of Mass that represents a kilogram, though essentially arbitrary, has been chosen with care. For scientific work, one kilogram was defined as the mass of a quantity of 1 litter of distilled water at 4o C. Newton’s first law defined the force concept qualitatively, and the second law quantified the concept while at the same time providing a meaning for the idea of mass. To these Newton added another highly original and important law of motion, the third law, which completes the general characterization of the concept of force by explaining, in essence, that each existing force has its mirror-image twin. In Newton’s words, “To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal , and directed to contrary parts.” It is not that one of the two forces causes the other. They both cause each other simultaneously. Much more later there have been various attempts by Einstein to replace Newton’s laws. In fact, it is now recognized by most scientists that any new theory is likely to postulate a certain number of hypotheses which led to complications. For example Einstein in his invalid general relativity (1915) tried to replace Newton’s third law (at a distance interaction), while the experiments of the quantum entanglement (1935) confirmed the fundamental action at a distance. (See my “QUANTUM ENTANGLEMENT REJECTS EINSTEIN”). Moreover Einstein in his special relativity introduced the concept of relative velocities with respect to an observer while in general relativity using Newton’s constant inertial mass rejected his wrong concepts of rest mass and relativistic mass. ( See my “CONTRADICTING RELATIVITY THEORIES”). In the kinematics of uniform circular motion Newton using the motion with respect to the center of the circular motion was ready to calculate mathematically the acceleration ( α = u2/r) pointing to the center of the circle of radius r. For the absolute circular motions Newton's rotating bucket argument (see "Bucket argument-WIKIPEDIA") was designed to demonstrate that true rotational motion cannot be defined as the relative rotation of the body with respect to the immediately surrounding bodies. Unfortunately the ordinary language that we use to describe motion causes confusion at this point. We are accustomed to hear talk about centrifugal force, a force that is said to act on a whirling body in a direction away from the center. It was Newton who recognized that all these phenomena are due to the natural tendency-'inertia'- of any body to keep on moving in the same direction if it is not constrained to do otherwise. Newton in his'' Opticks'' (1704) concluded that the Cartesian theory of light could not account for'' polarization''. This would be easy enough to understand if light is a stream of''' rectangular particles moving in vacuum''' but''' rather more difficult if light is a wave disturbance in a medium. In spite of Newton’s criticism, other scientists such as Hooke and Huygens continued to think of light in terms of impulses in a medium. This was not yet the “wave theory” in the modern sense, because the periodic nature of the pulses had not yet been recognized; ironically it was Newton who suggested that light might have to be somehow assigned also periodic properties in order to account for the phenomena of colors. Unfortunately Young (1803) who confirmed the wave nature of light abandoned Newton’s corpuscular theory in favor of the Huygens theory which led to Maxwell’s wrong fields moving through an ether (1865) rejected by the experiment of Michelson and Morley (1887) in favor of Newton’s rectangular particles. Newton also predicted that his '''particles of light have gravitational properties confirmed by Soldner in 1801. Nevertheless later (1905 and 1916) Einstein under his fallacious massless quanta fields of Maxwell developed his invalid theories of relativity. It is of interest to note that Einstein himself much more later (1938) recognized that photons have mass. For example in Einstein’s book “The Evolution of Physics” (page 234) we read: “A beam of light carries energy and energy has mass. But every inertial mass is attracted by the gravitational field, as inertial and gravitational masses are equivalent. A beam of light will bend in a gravitational field exactly as a body would if thrown horizontally with a velocity equal to that of light”. Under this condition I presented at the international conference “Frontiers of Fundamental Physics" (1993) my paper of dipole photons which have not only opposite charges but also mass m = hν/c2. Category:Fundamental physics concepts